雅思小作文主体段必备知识点之十二罗汉

雅思学术类小作文图形种类多变，写法和思路也有很多，经典句型更是层出不穷。但是笔者根据多年的课堂教学，以及自己的摸索，发现其实在小作文主体段中有这样12个必备的知识点，是每个旨在取得雅思写作好成绩的同学必须要牢固掌握的。这些知识点贯穿整个主体段，涵盖了所有类别的图形，每个都可谓是星光熠熠：

1. 罗汉：排序罗汉

排序结构应用于排列和引导具有一定逻辑关系的数据名称，一般用于排列“第2名”以后的数据名词。常用的逻辑顺序是数据的大小，时间的先后，数据变化幅度的大小等。其优点在于可以迅速地引出下一个数据指代对象，同时可以通过接续定语从句或者分词来提高句型的复杂度。在线性图，饼状图，柱状图和数据表格中应用广泛。朗阁海外考试研究中心总结出常用的排序结构一共有以下几个：

1. Next come…
2. … come next
3. It is followed by…
4. This is followed by…
5. … leaving … at …

举个非常简单的例子，比如中国是世界上人口多的，印度第2。那么我们不管用什么样的句子去写中国，在写完中国以后，就可以用上述排序结构中的某一个来引出印度，比如说：It is followed by India…然后在联系之后所要表达的数据来搭配不同的句式。下面我们来具体看几个排序在中的用法：

1. College C has the greatest proportion of lectures with PHD qualification among all the colleges, at 60%. Next comes college A, at 50%, followed by college B, at 30%.（按照数据大小关系）
2. London has the oldest underground railway system among the six cities and it was opened in the year 1863. Paris comes next, with the second oldest underground system being opened in 1900.（按照时间的先后）
3. Flying by air produces by far the greatest CO2 emissions. This is followed by passenger cars which are the next largest producers.（按照数据大小关系）
4. The underground train driver saw a much quicker growth rate in their annual salary than other professions. Police officer comes next, followed by the fire fighter and nurse.（按照数据的幅度大小关系）
5. Turning to the pie graph, over half of the funds were spent on building roads (52%). Next comes railways, taking up nearly one third of the funds. （按照数据大小关系）

在上述题目中，作者在柱状图和饼图的描述过程中分别使用了2个排序结构，处后面用定语从句来接续，第二处则使用了分词。可见，在使用这一结构的时候，我们需注意和其他句型和语法点的“混搭”，从而增加句式的变化，但是笔者并不建议整个图表连续使用排序结构来表达。

2. 第二罗汉：比重罗汉

在图表题中几乎每种图形都会涉及到百分比或者比重等数据，而略微遗憾的是我们很多同学对于如何表达这些数据不是很清楚，因此经常使用错误。其实要准确表达并不难，只要掌握几个核心的词汇：比如，percent是“百分之”的意思，等同于%符号，前面应该用数据，比如60%可以写成60 percent, 另外要注意percent后面是不加s的。而percentage是“百分比”的意思，后面不能直接跟数字，一般需要用the percentage of来表达某个百分比。此外，我们经常可以用proportion, share, rate等来表达相同的意思，比如：

I.    A large proportion of the earth’s surface is covered with water.

II.   Americans spend a smaller share of income on food than residents of other developed nations.

III.  The rate of heart disease increased sharply between 1950 and 1960.

IV.   The percentage of residents below 18 years old was much higher in Utah than that in other two states.

在百分比数据中，朗阁海外考试研究中心提醒考生们也要特别注意以下这几个重要的数据，它们的学术化表达也是小作文范文中的一大亮点，考生们需密切关注并熟练掌握，比如：

25%; 33%; 50%; 67%; 75% 对应的分数分别为 1/4; 1/3; 1/2; 2/3; 3/4。上述5个分数及其对应的百分比的表达在四种常规图表题里屡见不鲜，因此，正确并且合理的表达这些数字就显得极为重要。在实际考试中，我们在题目中看到这些百分数马上要转换成对应的分数，这样就可以直接用英文来准确表达，即：

25%---a quarter; 33%--one/a third; 50%--half; 67%--two thirds; 75%--three quarters.

但是实际应用时数据并不是一定那么巧正好是这几个百分比，在这些分数上下浮动五个百分点间的数值我们同样可以借助于这5个分数来表达，比如：69%我们可以写成slightly over two thirds, 72%我们可以写成slightly under three quarters等等，通过这样很小的切换，我们既增加了字数，又符合学术化的表达：

23% of the residents in Utah are people of 0-14 age group. 我们便能改为：

Slightly under a quarter of the citizens in Utah are people of 0-14 age group.

除了上述这几个重要分数外，我们有时候还会遇到80%, 90%这两个相对较大的比重，这个时候，我们也可以将其用a majority of或者是a vast majority of来进行学术化的转换：

A majority of courses at college C obtain top rating from inspectors, compared to 60% and 40% of other colleges.

3. 第三罗汉：“占据”罗汉

在饼图，柱状图和数据表格中，我们经常会需要表达A占了B的几分之几这样的意思，这个时候，我们可以用以下5个单词或词组来准确表达：

constitute; comprise; take up; account for; make up

I.    Asians comprise over one third of the six billion inhabitants.

II. In California, while blacks make up less than 20 percent of the juvenile population, over half of all arrests involve black children.

III. In general, the American general population spent a total of 7 hours 47 minutes on watching TV each week, which account for over half of the total hours.

IV. In 1960, the 15-46 age group constituted over half of the Japanese population.

值得注意的是，occupy这个词也有“占”的意思，但是一般在学术类小作文中我们不用它来表示占据的意思，因为它代表“物理”的占据，而图表中的占据是属于“抽象”的。

4. 第四罗汉：调查问卷罗汉

和问卷调查有关的单词是：survey/interview/questionnaire

问卷的结果一般表达为：the results of a survey/the responses to a survey

问卷调查或者访问的个体为：the people interviewed/respondent

1. The table illustrates the results of a survey on the university facilities in three British colleges in 2002.
2. Over half of the respondents give a positive feedback to the facilities.

在上面的个例句中，我们可以用the responses to a survey来同义替换划线的短语。

5. 第五罗汉：超越点罗汉

这条必备知识点我们一般只应用于线状图，因为一般只有2条以上的线图才可能出现相交的情况，这个时候我们可以用比较合理的句型来描述其中的若干个交叉点，具体的写作理论为：以上升或者上升幅度较大的那条线作为主句的描写内容，然后用现在分词来描写超越点，后面接续超越时间点。比如：

The production of CFC-12, on the other hand, showed an upward trend throughout the 20-year period from 25 to 50 million tones, surpassing the production of CFC-11 in 1989.

在上述例子中，主句我们使用的是主谓宾的简单句，在表达超越的时候，我们使用的动词是surpass, 除了这个单词以外，我们还可以用exceed或者overtake来替换，也能表达相似的含义。值得一提的是，这种描述方式并非是必须的，若使用的话也建议只使用一次，即便是图表中有2个以上的交叉点。

6. 第六罗汉：将来时结构罗汉

在小作文图表题的动态数据中，经常会出现未来的时间，这就要求我们在描写到这些数据的时候必须使用一般将来时。但是实际使用的时候我们会发现这些数据至少有2, 3个甚至更多，那么我们就不能千篇一律地将所有的地方都用一般将来时，而需要增加一些结构上的变化，这时候，将来时的结构便应运而生了：

1. be predicted to
2. be forecast to
3. be projected to
4. It is predicted that

要注意的是个结构中的to都是不定式，后面要接续动词的原形，在实际使用时be动词一般都为is, 但是这些结构都表示未来的意思：

1. The percentage showed a sharp increase in the coming years, which is forecast to reach a peak of 59% in the year 2021.
2. From 1990 onwards, however, the figure plunged, which is predicted to drop by 50% to only 10% in 2030.
3. It is predicted that the number of visitors will continue its upward trend and climb to 30,000 in the year 2035.

在使用这几个将来时结构时，我们注意到数据的描写先是用一个简单句涵盖了整个趋势，趋势中包含了过去现在和未来的数据，然后直接用表示将来时的结构拖出最后一个数据即可。这个可谓是使用这些结构的理论依据，大家不妨记一下。

7. 第七罗汉：连词罗汉

小作文中的连词起到了衔接逻辑顺序的作用，是一篇范文中的重要组成部分，根据朗阁海外考试研究中心的经验总结，在主体段中经常会用到以下这些重要的连词结构：

1. as can be seen
2. as can be told from the graph
3. turning to
4. with respect to
5. with regard to
6. in contrast
7. by comparison
8. compared to/with
9. in short
10. on the contrary
11. however
12. conversely
13. surprisingly
14. interestingly
15. similarly
16. onwards
17. following this
18. after that
19. then

前2个连词我们一般用于个主体段开篇，但是在动态数据图表中，我们可能就会使用时间状语作为开篇，因此这2个连词是参考，而非必须。主体段第2段，第3段甚至第4段的开篇我们可以参考3—5这几个连词，尤其是第4第5个，在意思上大致一致，表示“在。。。方面”。第6个和第7个的区别在于前者表示的是不同点的对比，而后者则表示相同或相似点的比较，后面都是跟句子。而当需要接续名词或者短语时我们就直接使用第8个连词。3个和4个数据情感副词，有些时候数据会给你造成一种情感上的变化和震撼，此时就需要使用这2个连词。从6个连词开始都是表示时间的，在动态数据中使用。

8. 第八罗汉：简单句罗汉

在图表题主体段的描写中，数据主要是通过简单句引导的，然后可以辅助地加上分词或者定语从句等语法结构来增加句型的变化。而简单句的使用也是有其侧重点的，下面朗阁海外考试研究中心将具体介绍一下：

1. 动态数据：主+谓

此结构是描写数据动态变化的选句型结构，需注意的是主语必须是“数据”比如number, figure, percentage等，不能是其他名词，而谓语动词也只能是不及物动词比如increase, drop等。下面我们来看几个例子：

1. The number of visitors increased sharply between 1995 and 2005 in China.
2. The percentage of people aged 15-46 dropped slightly by 10% during the 40 years.
3. The figure for college C rose gradually to 30,000 in 2002.
4. The number of aged people over 65 dropped slightly from 1960-1980.
5. The number of aged people over 65 fluctuated between 1 million and 1.2 million from 1940-1950.

2. 动态数据：主+谓+宾

此句型结构的特点在于谓语动词必须是及物动词，比如witness, see等，宾语位置要用表示动态变化的名词比如growth, reduction等，在主语位置上可以仍旧为数据，也可以是地点或者时间段。它对于用主谓结构表达的句子可以作同义转换，比如：

1. The number of visitors saw a sharp increase between 1995 and 2005 in China.
2. China witnessed a sharp increase in the number of visitors between 1995 and 2005.
3. The years between 1995 and 2005 saw a sharp increase in the number of visitors in China.

3. 动态数据：there + be

此简单句型一般用于对于上述两种动态数据描写句型进行同义转换，be动词的时态一定要根据数据的时间来改变，否则很容易出错：

1. There was an increase in the visits from about 12 to 53 million from 1979 to 1999.
2. There was a sharp rise in the number of visitors between 1995 and 2005 in China.
3. There was a slight decline in the number of aged people over 65 from 1960-1980.
4. There was a fluctuation between 1 million and 1.2 million from 1940-1950.

4. 静态数据：主+系+表

此句型结构也很实用，特别在描写静态数据中那些比较次要的数据时使用。既可以用来描写一个数据，也可以描写多个数据并列，比如：

1. The figures for college B and college A are 30% and 40% respectively.
2. The proportion of California was 27.3%.
3. The percentages of other two states were 18% and 34% respectively.

5. 静态数据：主+谓+宾

在静态数据的描写中，我们也可以使用这个句型，但是在每个成分上不受任何限制，单词完全是根据数据内容来选择的，没有固定词汇，因此我们要准确解读数据内容后才能下笔：

1. The most significant feature is that teacher’s salary was the biggest item of expenditure of UK universities while the spending on resources such as books only comprised a small share.
2. College C has the highest proportion of lectures with PHD qualification. College B comes next while college A has 20%.
3. London has the oldest railway system among all the cities. Paris comes next…
4. The male electronic players clearly outnumbered their female counterparts (72% and 28% respectively).

所有的这些简单句都是描述数据的基本句型元素，不论还是普通的文章，都是从这些简单句开始操作的。实际使用的时候，朗阁海外考试研究中心建议考生们需要根据数据间的逻辑关系搭配好合适的连词，另外，我们还可以在简单句之后继续对其扩展，灵活使用其他语法和句型组合，最终写出流畅的数据描写的句子。

9. 第九罗汉：介词罗汉

介词在小作文中的价值可见一斑，准确使用介词对于取得至关重要，因此在准备知识里笔者重点给出三个常用介词的使用方法，这三个介词分别是to, by, of。在使用的时候我们要注意，by是跟在动词后面的，表示幅度，而of是跟在名词后面的，同样表示幅度，to则既可以跟在动词也可以跟在名词之后，表示的是最终的数值大小。下面我们来看几个例子：

1. This year unemployment has increased by 20,000 cases.
2. This year there has been an increase in unemployment of 5%.
3. This year unemployment has risen to 10%.
4. This year there has been a rise in unemployment to 10%.

在和第三个句子中，划线单词都为不及物动词，而在第二和第四个句子里，划线单词都是名词，我们需要根据中文意思的不同，准确地按照上述理论来使用这几个介词，避免不必要的失分。

10. 第十罗汉：倍数罗汉

不论是静态还是动态数据，我们在描述中经常会发现某2个数据间存在倍数关系，或者某一个数据在经过增长后和前面一个时间点的数据存在倍数关系，这时候，从的角度来说，我们需要对于这些倍数作一个交代。表示倍数关系的单词主要有以下这些：double / triple / quadruple（2/3/4倍）, fold, times等。前面三个动词可以直接在句子中表达具体的倍数，而后面两个单词需要借助名词词组的形式来表达倍数：

1. In general, the number of global population rose sharply during the six centuries and climbed to around six billion in 2000, a growth of 12 times.
2. Around 80% of the graduates from college C are able to find employment within six months after graduation. This figure triples that of college A while college B has 50%.
3. Minors constituted nearly 30% of the population in Utah. This figure doubles that of California while Florida had 21%.

我们注意一下个句子中的名词短语，其中文意思为长了12倍，我们可以用a 12-folded growth对其进行替换，效果是一样的，但是中文意思发生了细微的变化，为一个12倍的增长。在第二和第三个句子中，划线的动词都是及物动词，直接可以将倍数关系表达出来，其使用的句子结构大家也不妨仔细体会一下。

11. 第十一罗汉：短语罗汉

小作文中的短语使用一般可以分为分词短语和介宾短语2种用法：

1.   分词短语

1. On average, 11% of all households, comprising almost two million people, were in this position.
2. 300 employees attend full-time course, constituting almost one third of all the employees.
3. Next comes tree-cutting, taking away slightly larger areas of land than farming in all the three regions.

朗阁海外考试研究中心提醒考生们，在使用分词短语时一定要注意语法的准确性，即分词的逻辑主语必须和主句的主语一致，否则是要导致扣分的。

4. Observing the overall workforce does not lead to any surprises as it simply combines the above two, with about two-thirds of all workers working full-time or long hours, and the remaining one-third working part-time.

2.   介宾短语

1. However, those consisting of only one parent or a single adult had almost double this proportion of poor people, with 21% and 19% respectively.
2. Couples generally tended to be better off, with lower poverty levels for couples without children (7%) than those with children (12%).
3. By contrast, the annual distance covered by bicycle, motorbike and air travel only represented an insignificant share, with less than 8 billion passenger kilometers for each.

在第3个例句中，我们要特别注意for each的用法，要将其和respectively区分开来，通过句子的意思来合理使用好这2个词。

4. Role play and education games had less successful sales, with 7% each.
5. In comparison, student expenditure in country C was considerably lower, at only US $1,500 per year.
6. Observing the overall workforce does not lead to any surprises as it simply combines the above two, with about two-thirds of all workers working full-time or long hours, and the remaining one-third working part-time.

在最后一个句子中，介词with引导的数据并列结构用连词and连接，使用时，我们一定要保证连词左右的短语都是名词形式，不能出现动词。

12. 第十二罗汉：被动语态罗汉

被动语态在常规的图表题和示意图中都是一个非常重要的组成部分，尤其对于增加句型变化和增加表达复杂度上起了很关键的作用，以下我们来具体看一下被动语态在学术类小作文主体段中的使用理论及法则。

1. 流程图

我们在写流程图的时候同一个动作用2种语态皆可表达，但是若使用被动语态，既避免了主语选择时的纠结，同时也增加了文章的字数，如：

1. In the first stage, the used bottles, discarded by customers, are collected at the collecting point.
2. Following this, the clean bottles are transported by the trucks to the glass factory where they are broken into glass pieces which are put into a furnace

在上面这个句子中，我们可以看到作者连续使用了定语从句这个语法点，然后用被动语态的方式串联前后的动作，这是表达的惯用方式，大家不妨仔细品味一下其中的写作理论。

3. In the final stage, new and empty bottles are filled with liquid, packed and dispatched to the supermarket ready to be picked by consumers.
4. Nitrogen is poured in. Water is needed only when it is hot in weather.

2. 地图题

在地貌变迁图里被动语态的使用相对于流程图来说就更加灵活了，因为地貌变迁图句型的选择面更广，因此被动语态相对来说就成为一种辅助的语法。如：

1. The year 1860 saw a doubling in the number of homes, but the size of farmland and woods was reduced by half.
2. In the same year, a bridge could be seen over the river and a road was constructed linking the river to the residences.
3. Several school buildings and sports facilities were constructed at the south-eastern corner of the village, which were connected with the residential area in the north by a newly-built road.

3. 动态数据

在连续的2段动态变化趋势中，不论相反或者相似，都可以用被动语态来进行句型的切换使之达到更加生猛的效果。如：

1. The number of world population rose slowly in the first 400 years from 1400. However, this was suddenly replaced by a sharply upward trend after 1800 and the figure surged to over 6 billion in 2000.
2. In the first 20 years, the amount of oil discovered increased dramatically by 50%. However, from 1990 onwards, it was suddenly replaced by a sharply downward trend and is predicted to dip to only 20,000 barrels in 2020.

在上面的2个例句中，细心的同学一定会发现，在动态数据变化的描写中，我们喜欢用replace这个动词，加上upward/downward这2个形容词来组合。没错，这几个单词就是我们一开始在采用这种句式时的惯用词汇，大家务必要记住。另外，在句子的衔接上，我们要用表示转折的连词。

3. From Monday to Friday, the dinner sales rose gradually by 20%. However, it was suddenly replaced by a downward trend when the weekend set in, dipping quickly by 10%.
4. This rise in passenger kilometer number was recorded in air, bus and rail travel but a slight decline was actually found in bicycle and motorbike travel.

在第4个例句中，我们用被动语态来对动态数据的变化作一小结，同时也进行了横向对比，这是被动语态在动态数据中的一种灵活使用方式。

5. This upward trend is expected to last through to the year 2021, when the population is estimated at 87,657,000, more than double the 1901 figure.

4. 静态数据

1. The rest of the students’ spending was divided among leisure, books and others.
2. Leisure spending constituted a larger percentage (20%) of student expenditure in both country A and country B, while in country C more money was spent on books (21%) than on leisure (12%).